Annotated Bibliography On Information Security - 2492 Words

1. Abstract Information security is a major concept in today’s industrial and computer era, so security must be higher to protect the confidential data. Information security plays major role in computer and network security with the use of different cryptography algorithms that includes the encryption and decryption of data with the uses of the algorithm and the key. By means of text or numerical key for the encryption can be dangerous because with the several hack attacks that a key can be broken. So I have proposed a new mechanism that will replace the text key with the image pixels and can gain high security which cannot be easy to break without prior knowledge. 2. Introduction For the decades to keep data secure and to convey the†¦show more content†¦It takes plaintext and the key as input and follows some mechanism with the use of mathematical calculations to convert the plaintext into the cipher text. Instead of using the key that is in the numerical and text format if we use the set of the pixels of an image, then the algorithm will be able to generate the cipher text that will be really hard to decode. 3. Research design 3.1 Basic theory - there are some primary and important components that play a vital role in the cryptography are, I. Plaintext: this is a regular text message that is in meaningful and in the readable format that needs to be secured. II. Cipher text: this is the result of the encryption process where we get the cipher text that is in scrambled and unreadable format. III. Algorithm: this is a core part of the cryptography where all transformations occur with some predefined processes, rules and basic mathematical functions. This algorithm is responsible for encipher and decipher a message. IV. Key: secret key that is used to encrypt the message and used as input to the algorithm. And this key is also shared between the sender and the receiver. 3.2 Processes used to carry out cryptography I. Encryption: encryption is carried out on the sender side, hence transferred plain text into the cipher text and forwarded over the network. II. Decryption: decryption is carried out on the receiver side to translate the cipher text into the plaintext with the same key that is used at the sender side. 3.3

Cultural Safety free essay sample

Culture plays an important role on nurse’s ability to provide culturally skilled care which involves the ability to manage complex differences in attitudes, religion, world views and even language (Jones Bourgeois, 2011). Culture is well-defined as the way of people live in a society. Cultural safety established as a concept in nursing practice in New Zealand with respect to health care for Maori people and later it progressed to provide quality care for people from different ethnicities and cultures. Therefore, nurses must provide the care within the cultural values and norms of the patient, otherwise which diminishes,demeans or disempowers the cultural identity and well-being of an individual (Wepa, 2005). The definition of Cultural Safety given by New Zealand Nursing Council is, â€Å" The effective nursing practice of a person or family from another culture and is determined by that person or family. Culture includes, but is not restricted to, age or generation; gender; sexual orientation; occupation and socioeconomic status; ethnic origin or migrant experience; religious or spiritual belief; and disability†(Nursing Council New Zealand [NCNZ], 2009). This assignment will discuss the health needs of New Zealand teenagers who involved in smoking. Apart from that,it will discuss how nurses should recognize the attitudes,cultural beliefs and how to demonstrate flexibility in their relationship with clients. Finally, I have discussed how theTreaty of Waitangi and Cultural Safety principles reflect on the nursing values for providing culturally safe practice. TASK ONE: Six million people die per year because of tobacco smoking and this yearly death rate might upswing to more than eight million by 2030, unless a significant effort is made (World Health Organization [WHO], 2011). It is a well-known risk factor for many cancers and for respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. In 2009, 22 per cent of people aged 15–64 years were cigarette smokers (Ministry of Social Development, 2010). Tobacco Smoking starts in early adolescence, usually by age 16 and most of them uses before high school graduation (Teen Smoking Facts, n,d). According to the Year 10 Smoking Survey conducted by Action on Smoking and Health New Zealand, and the Health Sponsorship Council, 28. 6 % teenagers were linked with Tobacco Smoking in 1999 and it plunged to 14. 2 % in 2006. The Auckland District region became the least Year 10 smoking rate with 8. 5 % whereas; Wanganui District Health region got the highest rate with 23. 3 % (Action on Smoking and Health[ASH], n. d. ). According to ASH Statistics, 12.8 % of youth aged 14-15 are regular smokers in which 10. 6 % among boys and 14. 9% among girls (Coe, n. d). The main health needs of Smoking teenagers are rehabilitation services, which include initiating smoke free homes, comprehensive school based education programs and policies, moreover, try to render help if they need any medical assistance to quit smoking (Lannelli, 2004). Programs should be fun and interactive, which can be tailored to the health issues faced by youth people. Parents who smoke are more likely to have children who smoke, so it is better to avoid smoking which helps the child to think logically (How to Quit Smoking, n.d). The environment in which teenagers live have a profound effect on their health; these are known as the social determinants of health (SDOH), including poverty, unemployment, poor education, bad nutrition, poor housing, less social support and higher level of stress (WHO, Social Determinants of Health , 2008). Low socio economic status makes the higher rates of smoking statistics. Health inequalities are not unavoidable which stem from avoidable disparities in society: on the basis of income, education, employment and neighbourhood circumstances and can be significantly reduced. While smoking causes ill health and physical addiction, the social determinants are those aspects that persuade or encourage individuals to become smokers, and to continue in the smoking habit despite their knowledge of the harm it is doing (Social Determinants and Smoking,n. d). TASK TWO Cultural safety is based within a framework of dual cultures and is consistent with the beliefs of Aotearoa/New Zealand’s founding document, the Treaty of Waitangi. Cultural safety is designed to guide health care delivery defined as ‘safe’ by the person receiving the care, which is indispensable part of nursing education in which nurses are responsible for effectively establishing and maintaining the limits or boundaries in the therapeutic nurse-client relationship (Richardson Macgibbon, n. d. ). In the case of New Zealand population, it is necessary to respect the key principles of Treaty of Waitangi, and they are 3 P’s like Participation, Protection and Partnership. Moreover, the health professional should consider these principles in their health care practice. The Treaty of Waitangi has developed a well-defined smooth platform for maintaining interactions between client and nurses (Wepa, 2005). The principle of partnership is to accomplish best state of individual involvement through culturally safe nursing practice. The nurses and clients must work together for promotion of health and prevention of diseases. Besides, it should be based upon the welfare of both partners through collaboration of planning, assessment, decision making and delivery of health care services (NCNZ, 2009). Partnership refers to the interactions between the client and the health Professional include developing a therapeutic relationship, respecting cultural differences, discussing options and involving them in the decisions about their care. The nurse establishes and maintains this key relationship by using nursing knowledge and skills, as well as applying caring attitudes and behaviours. There are five components to the nurse-client relationship: trust, respect, professional intimacy, empathy and power (College of Nurses of Ontario, 2006). Strengthening of family functioning has utmost significance in developing positive thinking among smoking teens to quit smoking. Family should be encouraged to understand the needs of teenagers by giving care and being more responsive. Nurses can give health education regarding detrimental effects of smoking and divert their habit to nicotine replacement therapy, gum and lozenges to avoid smoking (McMurray, 2007). Protection refers to the responsibility of the government to provide funding for teenage health, which constitutes protecting their physical, spiritual, emotional, mental and family health (New Zealand Cancer Society,2009). The principle of Protection aims to render safe health care and disability services to the clients. Nurses must aim to guard sense of identity of client throughout treatment which develops their self determination (NCNZ,2009). Nurses should keep the treatment confidential to maintain trust and inform the family of the client about progression of condition. Advocating and protecting teenagers include questioning goals of care when there is a misalignment between patient-family and medical team goals. The strong assessment prompts nurses to act as client’s advocates to speak about the values embedded in the practice and the needs of patients and their families (Day, 2006). Nurses ought to create self-esteem and determination in teenagers by developing positive attitudes about their life and career development (National Public Health Partnership, 2000). Participation calls for the positive involvement of clients with high level of decision making about their health needs in order to gain positive outcomes. It not only includes the clients, moreover discussing with their parents regarding prevention of teenage smoking. Access to learning and information gives significant achievement in active participation and the empowerment of teenagers (Hally, 2009). Active contribution from public as well as government helps in developing awareness and formulating tobacco prevention programs. Also, it conveys public policy initiatives to control youth access to tobacco and initiating cessation programs for youth is needed. For the prevention of teenage smoking, nurse should motivate them to participate in various community projects such as media anti- smoking campaigns, prohibition of tobacco products (McMurray, 2007). Efforts should be targeted at the schools, community, health care system, media campaigns, and the public policy arena, hence there are many factors predispose young people to smoke, such as parental smoking, peer pressure, advertising and marketing, as well as the easy availability of tobacco products from vending machines and illegal sales. Nurses are in a distinctive position to support a multipronged approach to the anti-smoking movement. Efforts to eliminate smoking and the use of smokeless tobacco products need to include in smoking prevention programs in schools. Nurses can help activate community participation in tobacco control strategies and implementation to reduce access by minors. Nurses are in a position to design and implement educational programs in school systems for students, teachers, staff members, and parents (LaSala Todd, n. d). Significance of Erikson’s stage Identity vs. Confusion should be considered by the nurses while dealing teenagers. Nurses must identify or develop smoking cessation programs that meet the needs of all types of adolescents and are effective in helping them to quit. Once designed, these smoking cessation programs should be made accessible to adolescents in a variety of settings. Techniques used in these programs include peer leadership, nicotine patch therapy, peer support, computer instruction, and one-on-one counselling with a nurse practitioner (Donovan, n. d). Nurses can educate the population on the harmful effects and future health problems of tobacco use, whereas they can help tobacco users to overcome their addiction in community level by implementing some policy measures like making them engaged to be in smoke-free workplaces and extending the availability of tobacco cessation resources. Peer-led prevention programmes like health education should be encouraged for young people so that peers can teach them about social consequences of smoking (Kearney Whyte, n. d. ). TASK THREE Nursing is a practice discipline with a unique body of knowledge and skills underpinned by nursing theory and research. Nursing’s core focus is people, and the way in which people respond to health, wellbeing, illness, disability, the environment, health care systems, and other people. The discipline of nursing in Aotearoa New Zealand incorporates the uniqueness of our cultural experience, drawing on concepts of whakawhanaungatanga, manaakitanga, rangatiratanga, and aroha in developing effective relationships as an essential tool for improving health outcomes. Nursing assures the human face in healthcare and provides professional, equitable nursing care for individuals, family whanau, hapu, iwi, and the wider society (New Zealand Nurses Organization [NZNO],2010). Nursing Culture can be defined as the combined pattern of human knowledge, beliefs, attitudes and behaviour that depends on the individual efficiency for learning and getting knowledge for the purpose of achieving positive health outcomes (University of British Columbia, 2006). Nurses should provide efficient nursing services to the people and nurses should understand historical, social, economic and political power of relationships in  delivering health care to the people (NCNZ, 2009). Communication, recognition of the diversity between cultural groups, and the impact of colonisation processes on minority groups has optimum significance on Nursing Culture. Cultural safety is an outcome of nursing education that enables a safe, appropriate and acceptable service that has been defined by those who receive it. It focus on understanding the impact of the nurse as a bearer of his/her own culture, history, attitudes and life experiences and the response other people make to these factors which makes them to examine their practice carefully. Besides, it recognises the power relationship in nursing which is biased toward the provider of the health and disability service. The examination of our own personal, cultural and health values, beliefs and practices the beginning point towards culturally safe practice (NCNZ, 2009). The nurse can provide centralized care to the patient in which customs; traditions, interests, beliefs, values, life style and family circumstances should be given maximum priority. The planning and designing of treatment for the patient along with health care team plays an important role in developing positive outcomes. The three basic factors such as respect, coordination and efficiency are associated with the positive outcome of patient centred care. The patient centred care depends upon the efficiency of nurse to provide information regarding understanding of the illness, diagnosis and treatment options (McKerns, n. d. ). According to nursing culture, communication is the first step for nurses in providing care within cultural safe practice. Communication plays an important role in principle of partnership as the nurse has to rapport well with teenage smokers and their family members in order to gain positive health outcomes (McMurray, 2007). Other Strategies that improve the skill to be culturally safe includes reflecting on one’s own culture, attitudes and beliefs about ‘others’ which helps to value other culture. Moreover, clear, value free, open and respectful communication between clients and nurses which can develop trust. Also it recognises and avoids stereotypical barriers which can demean other cultures. The nurse should be prepared to engage with others in a two-way dialogue where knowledge is shared and understand the influence of culture shock that can cause disparities in nursing care (Cultural Connections for learning, n. d. ). While providing culturally safe care, health care providers are asked to reproduce their personal and professional power in order to influence nursing interactions and achieve good health outcomes. Translating the concept into practice is complicated and reflected by different influences and practices such as: the cultures and identities of the nurse and patient. Behaviour and attitude of the health professional is strategic in emerging culturally safe practice towards the recipient of the care. Nurses should be equipped with skills and culturally safe knowledge to work effective and collective with clients. The nurse can be positioned in the settings where she or he may not be able to uphold her own nursing or personal values and beliefs in the delivery of culturally safe care, which can be compromised with networks of relationships with varying dergrees of support (Richardson, 2010). CONCLUSION: To conclude, nurses should know about the principles of Treaty of Waitangi as well as Cultural Safety guidelines for developing safe and equal distribution of health care services in New Zealand. Cultural Safety should bring to the attention of health professionals as it helps for a conscious and active intent to support, protect and value a person’s sense of identity and wellbeing during times of vulnerability, illness, suffering and life changes. It can be considered as an integral element of every day practice which helps to strengthen own cultural identity.

Test og mongolian history Essays - , Term Papers

Test og mongolian history 1. . (5 ) e ? .1415-1620 .1510-1600 .1515-1612 .1416-1622 2. . (5 ) e ....................................e e . 3. . (15 ) . ? ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... 4. , ,, ? (5 ) ..................................... 5. .(10 ) 1. . 2.e . 3.ee . 4.e . 6. , . (15 ) ? ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................7. . (5 ) I- e ............ ....... ......... . 8. . (5 ) , ................................. . 9. 3 . (10 ) E 10. e- ................................................... . (5 )

How to Use the Complement Rule in Statistics

How to Use the Complement Rule in Statistics In statistics, the complement rule is a theorem that provides a connection between the probability of an event and the probability of the complement of the event in such a way that if we know one of these probabilities, then we automatically know the other one. The complement rule comes in handy when we calculate certain probabilities. Many times the probability of an event is messy or complicated to compute, whereas the probability of its complement is much simpler. Before we see how the complement rule is used, we will define specifically what this rule is. We begin with a bit of notation.  The complement of the event  A, consisting of all elements in the  sample space  S  that are not elements of the set  A, is denoted by  AC. Statement of the Complement Rule The complement rule is stated as the sum of the probability of an event and the probability of its complement is equal to 1, as expressed by the following equation: P(AC) 1 – P(A) The following example will show how to use the complement rule. It will become evident that this theorem will both speed up and simplify probability calculations. Probability Without the Complement Rule Suppose that we flip eight fair coins - what is the probability that we have at least one head showing? One way to figure this out is to calculate the following probabilities. The denominator of each is explained by the fact that there are 28 256 outcomes, each of them equally likely. All of the following us a formula for combinations: The probability of flipping exactly one head is C(8,1)/256 8/256.The probability of flipping exactly two heads is C(8,2)/256 28/256.The probability of flipping exactly three heads is C(8,3)/256 56/256.The probability of flipping exactly four heads is C(8,4)/256 70/256.The probability of flipping exactly five heads is C(8,5)/256 56/256.The probability of flipping exactly six heads is C(8,6)/256 28/256.The probability of flipping exactly seven heads is C(8,7)/256 8/256.The probability of flipping exactly eight heads is C(8,8)/256 1/256. These are mutually exclusive events, so we sum the probabilities together using one the appropriate addition rule. This means that the probability that we have at least one head is 255 out of 256. Using the Complement Rule to Simplify Probability Problems We now calculate the same probability by using the complement rule. The complement of the event â€Å"We flip at least one head† is the event â€Å"There are no heads.† There is one way for this to occur, giving us the probability of 1/256. We use the complement rule and find that our desired probability is one minus one out of 256, which is equal to 255 out of 256. This example demonstrates not only the usefulness but also the power of the complement rule. Although there is nothing wrong with our original calculation, it was quite involved and required multiple steps. In contrast, when we used the complement rule for this problem there were not as many steps where calculations could go awry.​

What is the Word Love Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

What is the Word Love - Essay Example Love is something that individuals know from the very beginning. A mother whispering to an unborn baby is one of the first signs of love that a human is shown. From the beginning of an individual’s life, it is likely that love is the first feeling they feel. In the very beginning God created man. Man was alone. Since man was alone God loved man and he created a woman (Genesis 2:16) this woman allowed man to feel love. Love is one of the first feelings since the beginning of creation. The love between a man and a woman are one of the greatest feelings of love. Love between a man and woman produce an intimate and sexual form of love. These forms of love are what allow men and woman to want to become married to one another. Marriage is one of the oldest symbols associated with loving one another. Intimate and sexual forms of love allow individuals to become attracted to one another. This attraction allows chemicals in the brain to release endorphins that make people feel good. Th is feeling of good is all possible because of love. The love a man and woman share can lead to having children and raising a loving family. Love is something that is taught to children and carried with them their whole life. When a child is shown love, the child loves others and teaches that love to their own children. LOVE IN ACTION Children that are shown love from the beginning are more likely to love others. Loving others can be shown. Because of this, love is so much more than just a word defined in the dictionary. Love is an action. Love as an action is amazing. There are so many ways to show love as an action. People show love everyday as an action. From infants to adults, people are able to show love. Babies show love by crying when someone they love walks away. The babies cry because they love that person and do not want to see them go. Children love in action when they hug someone else that they see hurt. They hug to show that they love. Teenagers show love as an action wh en they experience there first kiss. That first kiss is a sigh of love. An adult bringing home a bouquet of flowers is showing love as an action. Love in action is without a doubt amazing. Love can be shown by picking up the phone and calling an old friend. Love can be shown by hanging up a photo of someone who is missed. People perform these actions because of love. No other emotion would show such an experience. This is why love is an experience in itself. Although love is able to show actions that are pleasing, love can also show actions that may be tough and hurtful at times. A parent may discipline a child because of a tough form of love. Love as a tough action is important for all individuals. Being shown tough love can allow someone to learn and gain from the experience. When someone close does something that seems hurtful at the time, it is likely because they love. Doing things that may not seem right are necessary to prove a point. An individual would not bother proving th e point if it was not for love. Love can also cause intense and inappropriate actions of love.  Ã‚  

The personality of Adolf Hitler Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The personality of Adolf Hitler - Research Paper Example Adolf Hitler, one of the world’s most talented yet ferocious leaders was born in the town of Braunau-am-Inn in Austria on 20 April 1889. This town is located close to the border between Germany and Austria.Hitler’s father, Alois, used to check the goods crossing the border in the capacity of a customs officer. Ida and Gustav were two children born to Hitler’s mother, Klara and Alois before Hitler, but none of the two had managed to survive the infancy. Hitler was six years of age when he started to go to school. The family spent time in several villages in Linz towards the east of Braunau. Klara and Alois gave birth to Edmund. Edmund was Hitler’s younger brother who did not live after six years of age. Finally, Hitler’s younger sister Paula was born in 1896, who lived even longer than Hitler did. Adolf Hitler was very weak in studies. He had no interest whatsoever in studies and thus, maintained a very poor record in school. His tuition was not comp leted when he left the school to fulfill his desire of becoming an artist. When Hitler turned thirteen, Alois passed away. Klara was left with Hitler and Paula and had to take care of the two children on her own. As a teenager, Hitler neither studied nor worked. Instead, he cultivated interest in the fields of history and politics. Meanwhile, Hitler made an attempt to study in the Vienna Academy of Fine Arts and applied for it, but the application went atrophy. In 1908, Klara could not survive cancer and passed away. From the age of nineteen onwards, Hitler and Paula were left all alone. Although Hitler did have uncles and aunts from his mother’s and father’s families, yet they were not keen on supporting the children. Hitler resolved to travel to Vienna in 1909 with a view to earning money. For almost a year or perhaps more, Hitler had no food or shelter. He was homeless and had his meals in the charity soup-kitchens. He never continued a job for long. Instead, he wou ld do occasional menial jobs. He also persuaded people that would show the slightest interest in Hitler’s paintings into buying them. This was how Hitler spent his life from his mother’s death till 1913. The penniless vagabond, Adolf Hitler traveled to the southern part of Germany in 1913 and reached Munich. In 1914, when the World War I commenced, Hitler applied to join in the German Army. He was fortunate enough to be selected for the 16th Bavarian Reserve Infantry Regiment. This was the turning point in the life of Adolf Hitler. He became a soldier from a penniless drifter. Hitler participated in the World War I from the side of Germany and fought very bravely. Owing to the display of immense courage and bravery in the war, Hitler was promoted to Corporal. He was also granted the awards of First Class and the Iron Cross Second Class. Hitler kept wearing the former throughout his life until the day of his death. An attack of British gas had blinded Hitler temporarily and he was hospitalized on the day, on which the armistice was announced in 1918. By the end of 1918, Hitler rejoined his regiment in Munich. In the four months from December 1918 till March of the following year, Hitler served in Traunstein at a camp of prisoner-of-war. After that, he moved back to Munich and saw that the local Communists had initiated a takeover bid. The Communists had snatched the authority before the army could expel them. Hitler was offered an opportunity to join a local army organization that aimed at convincing the returning soldiers to stay away from pacifism or communism. The training Hitler received in it and the duties that followed helped him improve his oratory skills. One of his duties was to spy on some political groups. At one gathering of the German Worker’s Party, Hitler became extremely angry to hear a speech and berated the speaker. Anion Drexler, who was that party’s founder was extremely overwhelmed with the overt expression of c ourage made by Hitler and thus, invited Hitler to

Filipino Accounting Education Essay Example for Free

Filipino Accounting Education Essay This Statement is issued by the Accounting Education Change Commission (AECC). The AECC was appointed in 1989 by the American Accounting Association and supported by the Sponsors Education Task Force, representing the largest public accounting firms in the United States. Its objective is to be a catalyst for improving the academic preparation of accountants so that entrants to the accounting profession possess the skills, knowledge, and attitudes required for success in accounting career paths. The Commission encourages reproduction and distribution of its statements. The Commissions first Position Statement, on the objectives of education for accountants, emphasized the importance of teaching. The Statement cited the need for training in instructional methods, recognizing and rewarding contributions to teaching and curriculum design, and measurement and evaluation systems that encourage continuous improvement of instructional methods and materials.1 Without progress in these prerequisites to effective teaching, the objectives of that Statement cannot be realized. Moreover, progress is needed in mechanisms for sharing ideas and techniques and in the culture and organizational climate that establishes and maintains the scholarly status of teaching within the professoriate. All interested parties (e.g., university boards of trustees, regents, legislatures, governors, parents of students, and other sponsors of education) should help establish a priority on teaching and otherwise improve its effectiveness, but faculty and administrative leaders bear the greatest responsibility. CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE TEACHING The characteristics of effective teaching must be identified if their presence is to be measured and improvements envisioned. Understanding the characteristic of effective teaching is essential for faculty (so they know what is expected) and administrators (so they can assess performance). Five characteristics of effective teaching are listed below. Curriculum Design and Course Development. To effectively design curricula and develop courses the teacher must: set appropriate objectives; develop a useful framework for the conduct of courses and programs; conceptualize, organize, and properly sequence the subject matter; integrate courses with other related courses, disciplines, and current research; and be innovative and adaptive to change. Use of Well Conceived Course Materials. Effective course materials enhance presentation skills, fulfill course objectives, are consistent with current developments and new technology in the field, create a base upon which continued learning can be built, challenge students to think, and give them the tools to solve problems. Presentation Skills. Effective presentation skills stimulate students interests and their active participation in the learning process, respond to classroom developments as they occur, convey mastery of the subject matter, achieve clarity of exposition, instill professionalism, and engage students with different learning styles. Well Chosen Pedagogical Methods and Assessment Devices. Effective pedagogical methods (e.g., experiments, cases, small group activities) vary with circumstances (e.g., size of class, nature of the subject, ability or skill being developed). Assessment devices (e.g., examinations, projects, papers, presentations) should be geared both to course objectives and to the progress of the course and should have a pedagogical component (e.g., fixing in the students mind what is most important, learning by thinking through a problem, identifying weaknesses to be corrected, reinforcing acquired skills). Guidance and Advising. An effective teacher guides and advises students as appropriate to the level of study and research (e.g., a freshmans exploration of potential careers, a seniors job placement, or a doctoral students work on a dissertation). THE ADMINISTRATIVE TASK Administrators should ensure that the reward structure stimulates effective teaching. They should also give attention to the other administrative issues that can affect the quality of teaching. These include: The schools or departments infrastructure for learning. This infrastructure includes, for example, classrooms, EDP and projection equipment, library facilities, and study space. Deployment of discretionary resources (e.g., availability of secretarial assistance, printing and duplicating, travel funds for teaching conferences). Appropriate class sizes and teaching loads, given the educational mission and resources of the school. Administrators should consider how each of the factors above is influencing the quality of teaching at their institutions and whether improvements can be made. Finally, administrators should be satisfied with the quality of the procedures in place in their institutions to evaluate teaching and continuously improve it. REWARDING EFFECTIVE TEACHING Faculty and administrators have a joint responsibility to develop incentive systems that produce the best educational outcomes for students. No one reward system or set of reward criteria can serve all institutions, but all should create adequate incentive for effective teaching. The incentive systems should reward effective teaching in deed as well as in word. Effective teaching should be a primary consideration in the tenure, promotion, and merit evaluation process. Effectiveness and innovation are not free, and it would be a mistake to assume that in the long term simply faculty pride and altruism are sufficient to accomplish continual change and improvement in the instructional function. STRATEGIES FOR EVALUATING AND IMPROVING TEACHING There is a close relationship between evaluating and improving teaching. Information about performance provides feedback on where improvements might be made. Assessments of performance need not have a purely administrative function of determining salaries and promotions; they can be devoted to improving teaching. The techniques below illustrate the range of what is available. Regardless of the technique chosen, assessments of teaching should be systematic and consistent. Self-assessment. Every teacher should regularly assess his or her work in order to improve. Self-assessment requires an evaluation of what was effective, what was not, why some things were relatively more effective, and what changes are desirable. Self-assessments can include documentation of purposes and techniques provided to colleagues as part of formal evaluations and are a natural basis for informal discussions of teaching techniques. Observations by Colleagues. Faculty should be primarily responsible for evaluating the teaching performance of colleagues. The evaluation process should be systematic and should strive for objectivity. A structured approach lends consistency to observations, which can make subsequent observations less stressful. All observations by colleagues should have as a major purpose to make recommendations for improvement, even if the occasion for the observation is administrative. Experience should be considered in assigning faculty observers. Student Evaluations. Student evaluations provide direct evidence of student attitudes toward the classroom experience. Students can report reactions to course workload; to the course materials; to the teachers classroom enthusiasm, demeanor and control; and to their personal interaction with the teacher. They can also estimate their own academic growth in the course. Alumni Input. Graduates can report on the thoroughness of their preparation, the usefulness of specific educational experiences in their lives and careers, and recollections of effective courses and teachers. Aggregate data on alumni outcomes (e.g., employment data) can be combined with information on curriculum design and teaching effectiveness to evaluate how both an accounting program and teaching approaches might be improved. Instructional Consultants. Consultants can analyze teaching techniques and styles and provide recommendations for improvement. Sometimes it is useful to work with a consultant and a faculty colleague, with the colleague focusing on course content and the consultant on teaching techniques. Teaching Portfolios. A teaching portfolio is a factual description or collection of a professors teaching achievements (i.e., an extended teaching resume). The teaching portfolio is to a professors teaching what lists of publications, grants, and academic honors are to research. A portfolio might include documentation of ones teaching experience and philosophy, syllabi, evidence of student learning, student and faculty evaluations, videotapes, and documentation of work on curriculum design and course development. A teaching portfolio may be critical to providing the teaching vita with the portability and external review enjoyed for so long by the publishing vita. CONCLUSION Every party with a stake in improving accounting education has a stake in improving accounting professors teaching, but faculty and administrators can do the most to bring it about. They can work to ensure that teaching is appropriately rewarded and supported, that campus conditions are conducive to effective teaching, that effective teaching strategies are shared with others, that sound mechanisms for feedback on teaching effectiveness are in place and functioning, and that methods of evaluating teaching are refined and viewed as credible by those who play key roles in the evaluation and reward process. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY Angelo, Thomas A. and K. Patricia Cross. Classroom Assessment Techniques: A Handbook for College Teachers (2nd Edition) San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1993 Boyer, Ernest L. Scholarship Reconsidered: Priorities of the Professoriate. Princeton, N.J.: The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 1990. Blackburn, Robert T. and Judith A. Pitney. Performance Appraisal for Faculty: Implications for Higher Education. Ann Arbor, MI: national Center for Research to Improve Postsecondary Education, The University of Michigan, 1988. Braskamp, Larry A. and John C. Ory. Assessing Faculty Work. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers (in preparation), 1993. Cashin, William E. Defining and Evaluating College Teaching, IDEA Paper No. 21. Kansas State University, Center for Faculty Evaluation and Development, September 1989. Centra, John, Robert C. Froh, Peter J. Gray, Leo M. Lambert and Robert M. Diamond, eds. A Guide to Evaluating Teaching for Promotion and Tenure. Syracuse University, Center for Instructional Development, 1987. Diamond, Robert M. Designing and Improving Courses and Curricula in Higher Education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1989. Edgerton, Russell, Patricia Hutchings and Kathleen Quinlan. The Teaching Portfolio: Capturing the Scholarship in Teaching. Washington, D.C.: American Association for Higher Education, 1991. Gabbin, Alexander L., Scott N. Cairns and Ralph L. Benke, Jr., eds. Faculty Performance Appraisal. Harrisonburg, VA: Center for Research in Accounting Education, 1990. Lambert, Leo M. and Stacey Lane Tice, eds. Preparing Graduate Students to Teach: A Guide to Programs that Improve Undergraduate Education and Develop Tomorrows Faculty. Washington, D.C.: American Association of Higher Education, 1993. McKeachie, Wilbert J. Teaching Tips: A Guide Book for the Beginning College Teacher. (8th Edition) Lexington, MA: Heath and Company, 1986. Mckeachie, Wilbert J., Paul R. Pintrich, Yi-Guang Lin and David Smith. Teaching and Learning in the College Classroom: A Review of the Research Literature. Ann Arbor, MI: National Center for Research to Improve Postsecondary Education, The University of Michigan, 1986. Menges, Robert J, and B. Claude Matkis, eds. Key Resources on Teaching, Learning, Curriculum, and faculty Development. San Francisco, CA. Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1988. Seldin, Peter. The Teaching Portfolio: A Practical Guide to Improved Performance and Promotion Tenure Decisions. Boston, MA: Anker Publishing, 1991. Seldin, Peter and others. How Administrators Can Improve Teaching: Moving from Talk to Action in Higher Education. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1990. Stark, Joan S. and others. Planning Introductory College Courses: Influence on Faculty. Ann Arbor, MI: National Center for Research to Improve Postsecondary Education, The University of Michigan, 1990. St. Pierre, E. Kent, Michael P. Riordan and Diane A. Riordan, eds. Research in Instructional Effectiveness. Harrisonburg, VA: Center for Research in Accounting Education, 1990. The Teaching Professor. A newsletter published by Magna Publications, Inc., Madison, WI: Maryellen G. Weimer, Editor, Pennsylvania State University. The AECC acknowledge the contributions to the Statement of the following task force members who are not Commission members: Ronald J. Patten and Arthur R. Wyatt. Other Statement issued by the Accounting Education Change Commission: Issues Statement No. 1: AECC Urges Priority for Teaching in Higher Education (August 1990). Position Statement No. One: Objectives of Education for Accountants (September 1990). Issues Statement No. 2: AECC Urges Decoupling of Academic Studies and Professional Accounting Examination Preparation (July 1991).